The Benefits and Dangers of Vegetarianism

Meat Consumption Lower is better1
Pos.		2021 kg1	2010s Avg1
1	Congo, DR	03.0	03.7
2	Burundi	03.5	02.7
3	Bangladesh	04.3	04.1
4	Madagascar	05.4	06.7
5	India	05.7	04.3
6	Nigeria	07.0	07.9
7	Ethiopia	07.1	06.9
8	Rwanda	07.6	08.5
9	Mali	07.8	21.5
10	Niger	08.1	09.1
	...
181	Argentina	115.5	106.0
182	Mongolia	115.6	84.3
183	Nauru	125.9
184	USA	126.8	118.5
185	Hong Kong	146.9	135.1
q=185.

There are five key arguments in favour of vegetarianism which accrue even from partial adoption: (1) Vegetarian diets have notable health advantages over carnivorous diets, especially for heart and cardiovascular issues_2,3,4. (2) It is morally better to avoid killing or harming animals. (3) Plant-based diets use much less water than carnivorous ones, to the extent that agricultural and water management scientists urge governments to encourage people to switch₅. (4) Vegetarian food production uses substantially less land_2,6,7. And, (5) vegetarianism is better for the environment than meat-production for emissions, sewerage, pollution and chemicals usage._2,6. A plant-based diet causes 75% less greenhouse gas emissions than a typical carnivorous diet₇. The global food industry causes about 1/3 of all planet-heating emissions, and so "to slow the worst climate effects, the United Nations has called for a drastic reduction in meat consumption"₇. Despite this, "reducing appetites for carbon-intensive meat and dairy is incredibly hard"₈ and as countries get richer, they tend to eat more meat.

There are some problems; some pro-vegetarian are plainly wrong and misguided and some faddish vegetarian diets are harmful and dangerous. It's still possible to eat poorly whilst a vegetarian, especially from junk and processed food, and from not eating a wide enough range of vegetarian foods to obtain enough omega-3s or B12. But these are often minor problems and less severe than carnivorous equivalents. Looking at recent trends, the countries that ate the least meat throughout the 2010s were Burundi, Congo, DR, Bangladesh, India and Madagascar₁.

This page examines what is dangerous and what is not, the psychology behind vegetarianism and some of the arguments for and against vegetarianism.

1. Arguments for Vegetarianism
   1. Health Benefits
   2. It is Morally Better to Avoid Killing Animals
   3. Less Water Use
   4. Less Land Use
   5. Fewer Emissions, Less Pollution
2. Types of Vegetarian
3. By Country and Region
4. The History of Vegetarianism
5. Dietary Issues and Vegetarianism
   1. Vitamin A is Not Found in Plants
   2. Vitamin B₁₂ is Not Found in Plants
   3. Vitamin D Deficiency in Vegetarians
   4. Iron Deficiency
6. Alternatives to Vegetarianism
   1. Consumer Activism and Economics: Ethical Purchasing
   2. Synthetically Grown (In-Vitro) Meat
7. Religion and Vegetarianism
   1. Ritual Animal Slaughter in World Religions
8. Links

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1. Arguments for Vegetarianism₉

1.1. Health Benefits

#diet #health #india #UK #vegetarianism

High rates of meat consumption are unhealthy. Red meat in particular is associated with health conditions; "Britons consume much more meat and much fewer fruits and vegetables than dietary advice recommends, and this is thought to have led to increased levels of obesity and other diet-related illnesses"₂. The UK's dietary problems are slowly improving, but some countries have such a culture of meat consumption that bringing the population towards a balanced diet is exceedingly difficult.

Although the meat industry actively pushes misinformation about problems with vegetarian diets, the reality is that good portions of the world (e.g. much of India, which has 1.4 billion people) are vegetarian; "there are plenty of ways to get adequate nutrition from a plant-based diet such as beans, nuts, whole grains, lentils, seeds [etc]"₃.

In the 1990s in the UK it was found that vegetarians have lower risk of high blood pressure, 20% lower blood cholesterol levels than meat-eaters, 30% reduced risk of heart disease, "and the incidence of colon cancer is 40% lower among vegetarians, as are gall and kidney stones"₄. Hence most vegetarians by the 1990s cited better health as their main motivation₁₀.

1.2. It is Morally Better to Avoid Killing Animals

#animal_welfare #diet #vegetarianism

Humankind slaughters billions of animals annually, often after raising them in torturously inhumane conditions. It is better to reduce the suffering we directly cause as a species, even in cases where the animals in question aren't widely believed to feel as much as we do. Some vegetarians (75%)₁₀ are simply trying to be better people.

“The philosopher Peter Singer, in Animal Liberation, is the most eloquent advocate of the view that we should move to a post-speciesist condition in which humane treatment is meted out to all species that have the brain power to appreciate it. [...] It would be a natural extrapolation of earlier reforms like the abolition of slavery and the emancipation of women.”

Prof. Richard Dawkins (2006)₁₁

1.3. Less Water Use

#food #meat #sustainability #veganism #vegetarianism #water

Vegan diets overall use 54% less water than meat-heavy diets₇; the prevalence of agriculture for meat is adding pressure to global freshwater supplies_12,3,13 which are already stressed_14,15,16. Already, "up to 90% of all managed water is used to grow food"₁₂ (some say 92%₁₃) and within the next 20 years the human population is going to increase by a further 2 billion_12,17: finding enough freshwater is going to be "one of the greatest challenges facing governments"_12,18. Pollution from poo-intensive animals such as cows and chicken have a noticeable effect on river and water pollution in the surrounding area₁₄.

Some meats are worse than others; red meat is particularly problematic. The best foods for calories, in terms of water use, are starchy roots, cereals and sugar crops (butter is next if you don't want to count sugar as a sensible food choice) - the worst are beef, sheep & goat meat, and nuts. The best foods for protein are oil crops, pulses, and cereals; despite common opinion, beef is a very poor source of protein from a water-usage point of view.

Milk has a similar profile; diary milk uses around double the amount of water than alternatives such as rice milk, oat milk and almond milk, and, soya milk uses 12 times less water₃. Dr Dana Hunnes, at UCLA Sustainability, says that overall "a plant-based diet can reduce [global] water consumption [in food production] by up to 50 percent"₃.

For more, see:

• "Vegetarian (Plant-Based) Diets Use Much Less Freshwater than Carnivorous Diets" by Vexen Crabtree (2023).

1.4. Less Land Use

#vegetarianism

Millions of acres of rainforest have been cleared for the purposes of creating pastures for animal grazing. While it is true that soya production also has the same effect, most soya goes towards animal feed, doubling the size of land required than if we used the soya directly. Animal livestock eats up 40% of the planet's cereal grain and uses 70% of its arable land₆. In terms of weight, using grain for animal feed produces thirty times less food than it would if it went straight into the human food chain. Vegetarian diets reduce the incentive to clear forests.₂

Fully vegan diets have an even stronger effect, resulting in 75% less land use, and 66% less biodiversity loss as a result of habitat alterations for meat production₇.

1.5. Fewer Emissions, Less Pollution

#climate_change #diet #environmentalism #USA #vegetarianism

Meat production is much worse for the environment aside from the problem of land-clearance and water consumption, especially red meat and grain-fed meat₂. Animal livestock produces up to a quarter of the greenhouse gasses produced by human activity. In the USA, cattle alone dump 64 million tons of sewage into the country's infrastructure per year₆.

“Dr. Scarborough [notes that] while critiques of plant-based diets often highlighted environmental effects of select vegan foods [...] the new research showed that plant-based diets had far less of an environmental toll than animal-based ones. [...] People who follow a plant-based diet account for 75 percent less in greenhouse gas emissions than those who eat more than 3.5 ounces of meat a day.”

New York Times (2023)₇

2. Types of Vegetarian

Common Vegetarians, the modal type, avoid eating meat and any body parts of animals and products produced from animal parts. The average vegetarian will eat products that come from animals but did not kill them; eggs, dairy products such as cheese and milk, honey, etc. Technically these are called ovo-lacto vegetarians. It is the form of vegetarianism that allows the closest thing to a healthy normal diet, but it still lacks some vital nutrients that must be carefully made up for.

Pescetarians are vegetarians who also eat fish.

Vegans avoid all animal produce, including diary. This extends to goods such as clothes (fur) and any other material that could otherwise contain animal produce. It can be difficult to keep a vegan diet healthy, but in the past two decades huge improvements in nutrition research and consumption patterns has meant that veganism is no longer associated with ill health.

In biology:

• Carnivores are species that eat meat, such as cats, dogs, humans, wolves, birds of prey, and the majority of other higher animals.

• Herbivores are species that do not eat meat and survive on vegetables.

• Omnivores eat both meat and plant foods, although the term wouldn't be used if a species only eats relatively small quantities of one, compared to the other (e.g., less than 20%).

3. By Country and Region₂₀

#food #meat #veganism #vegetarianism

Meat Consumption Lower is better1
Pos.		2021 kg1	2010s Avg1
1	Congo, DR	03.0	03.7
2	Burundi	03.5	02.7
3	Bangladesh	04.3	04.1
4	Madagascar	05.4	06.7
5	India	05.7	04.3
6	Nigeria	07.0	07.9
7	Ethiopia	07.1	06.9
8	Rwanda	07.6	08.5
9	Mali	07.8	21.5
10	Niger	08.1	09.1
11	Afghanistan	08.7	10.9
12	Uganda	09.4	11.1
13	Togo	09.4	12.7
14	Kenya	10.3	15.5
15	Mozambique	10.4	08.4
16	Sierra Leone	11.7	08.6
17	Sri Lanka	12.0	08.6
18	Tanzania	12.1	10.0
19	Ivory Coast	12.6	11.5
20	Cambodia	12.6	13.4
21	N. Korea	12.8	14.2
22	Bhutan	13.6
23	Cameroon	14.6	13.6
24	Guinea-Bissau	14.7	16.7
25	Djibouti	14.8	14.8
26	Benin	15.6	21.2
27	Guinea	16.7	11.7
28	Gambia	16.7	10.5
29	Timor-Leste (E. Timor)	17.2	19.5
30	Nepal	17.3	12.9
31	Solomon Islands	17.4	14.3
32	Syria	17.8	18.5
33	Yemen	17.8	16.8
34	Algeria	17.9	21.0
35	Iraq	18.3	19.8
36	Zambia	18.3	19.4
37	Indonesia	18.6	12.4
38	Pakistan	18.6	15.9
39	Senegal	19.3	16.5
40	Sudan	19.9	22.6
41=	Myanmar (Burma)	20.0	51.8
41=	Angola	20.0	26.2
43	S. Sudan	20.2
44	Liberia	20.3	17.4
45	Ghana	20.9	13.4
46	Haiti	21.6	18.8
47	Lesotho	21.7	16.6
48	Thailand	26.0	28.4
49	Swaziland	27.1	28.2
50	Malawi	27.4	17.3
51	Tunisia	27.8	27.1
52	Sao Tome & Principe	28.3	17.2
53	Maldives	28.8	24.9
54	Egypt	29.1	26.8
55	Laos	29.8	23.5
56	Botswana	30.1	24.8
57	Nicaragua	31.5	27.0
58	Iran	31.6	36.8
59	Morocco	32.1	34.2
60	Tajikistan	32.4	22.2
61	Mauritania	32.4	32.3
62	Philippines	32.9	35.9
63	Burkina Faso	33.3	16.4
64	Central African Rep.	34.4	34.1
65	Comoros	34.5	20.5
66	Venezuela	35.6	57.5
67	Jordan	36.0	39.4
68	Lebanon	36.3	37.8
69	Paraguay	36.4	35.2
70	Azerbaijan	37.1	31.8
q=185.

Meat Consumption Lower is better1
Pos.		2021 kg1	2010s Avg1
71	Namibia	37.2	30.5
72	Georgia	37.8	33.7
73	Cape Verde	38.4	34.6
74	Honduras	38.8	31.9
75	Kyrgyzstan	39.0	34.8
76	Macedonia	41.0	37.8
77	Guatemala	42.1	36.1
78	Uzbekistan	42.3	35.8
79	Turkey	43.0	35.7
80	Vanuatu	43.4	37.8
81	El Salvador	43.9	33.6
82	Fiji	44.4	41.2
83	Congo, (Brazzaville)	46.0	30.1
84	Bosnia & Herzegovina	46.8	37.8
85	Chad	47.1	41.1
86	Oman	48.0	50.8
87	Ukraine	48.5	50.6
88	Cuba	49.6	53.4
89	Libya	50.0	40.5
90	Ecuador	50.9	51.7
91	Albania	52.0	44.0
92	Kiribati	52.4	30.4
93	Vietnam	52.6	42.5
94	Dominican Rep.	53.5	50.7
95	Peru	54.0	45.9
96	Mauritius	54.2	52.1
97	Saudi Arabia	55.1	52.9
98	Zimbabwe	56.0	57.0
99	Belize	56.6	47.2
100	Japan	57.2	48.7
101	Turkmenistan	57.4	54.7
102	Papua New Guinea	58.5	62.6
103	Trinidad & Tobago	58.5	73.9
104	Armenia	60.0	50.2
105	Suriname	60.8	51.6
106	Colombia	60.9	55.2
107	Slovenia	61.2	74.5
108	Bulgaria	61.8	55.7
109	Moldova	61.9	50.2
110	Costa Rica	62.2	50.8
111	China	63.6	60.6
112	Uruguay	62.8	64.0
113	Jamaica	63.4	63.9
114	Slovakia	63.5	54.9
115	China	63.6	60.6
116	Netherlands	63.8	69.3
117	Malaysia	65.3	66.9
118	Belgium	66.2	63.6
119	Gabon	66.3	68.4
120	Sweden	66.9	75.9
121	Romania	67.1	62.9
122	Malta	67.8	78.1
123	Switzerland	68.0	70.2
124	Micronesia	70.4
125	Denmark	70.5	75.1
126	Seychelles	70.6	59.1
127	S. Africa	71.6	62.2
128	Kazakhstan	71.8	63.8
129	Estonia	72.1	64.8
130	Guyana	72.4	49.4
131	Latvia	74.0	66.3
132	Finland	74.0	75.2
133	Italy	74.3	81.4
134	Norway	74.7	69.3
135	Mexico	75.4	67.9
136	Cyprus	75.8	77.7
137	Austria	76.4	89.9
138	Germany	76.6	84.7
139	Greece	76.8	74.7
140	Serbia	77.6	67.3
q=185.

Meat Consumption Lower is better1
Pos.		2021 kg1	2010s Avg1
141	Russia	78.4	73.5
142	Bolivia	78.4	73.1
143	Grenada	78.6	58.3
144	Ireland	80.2	80.8
145	Kuwait	81.3	77.0
146	New Zealand	81.4	91.0
147	S. Korea	81.5	69.5
148	Dominica	81.6	66.0
149	Hungary	82.1	76.0
150	UK	82.3	81.3
151	Czechia	82.4	79.4
152	Bahrain	82.8
153	Qatar	83.0
154=	Iceland	83.6	86.9
154=	Lithuania	83.6	77.2
156	UAE	84.3	42.3
157	Panama	85.0	69.5
158	Luxembourg	85.8	89.3
159	Antigua & Barbuda	85.8	86.2
160	France	86.1	88.4
161	Barbados	86.4	75.2
162	Canada	86.9	91.9
163	New Caledonia	87.5	78.3
164	Montenegro	88.4	80.8
165	Belarus	88.9	80.5
166	Poland	89.3	83.3
167	St Lucia	89.6	90.9
168	Taiwan	89.8	79.8
169	Croatia	90.8	70.5
170	French Polynesia	92.5	96.1
171	Portugal	94.6	94.1
172	St Kitts & Nevis	96.6	91.2
173	Chile	97.8	86.7
174	Brazil	98.8	95.7
175	Spain	100.3	98.4
176	Samoa	106.2	103.9
177	Israel	107.7	101.4
178	St Vincent & Grenadines	109.5	100.7
179	Australia	110.2	119.4
180	Bahamas	111.9	101.2
181	Argentina	115.5	106.0
182	Mongolia	115.6	84.3
183	Nauru	125.9
184	USA	126.8	118.5
185	Hong Kong	146.9	135.1
q=185.

And by worldwide region and country groupings:

	Area	2021 kg1	2010s Avg1	Countries, Highest & Lowest
	Africa...	24.9	22.8	Congo, DR (03.0 kg), Burundi (03.5 kg) and Madagascar (05.4 kg) S. Africa (71.6 kg), Seychelles (70.6 kg) and Gabon (66.3 kg)
	Asia...	46.7	42.1	Bangladesh (04.3 kg), India (05.7 kg) and Afghanistan (08.7 kg) Hong Kong (146.9 kg), Mongolia (115.6 kg) and Israel (107.7 kg)
	Australasia	74.2	67.5	Solomon Islands (17.4 kg), Vanuatu (43.4 kg) and Fiji (44.4 kg) Nauru (125.9 kg), Australia (110.2 kg) and Samoa (106.2 kg)
	Europe...	71.1	69.1	Azerbaijan (37.1 kg), Georgia (37.8 kg) and Macedonia (41.0 kg) Spain (100.3 kg), Portugal (94.6 kg) and Croatia (90.8 kg)
	North America	71.1	65.4	Haiti (21.6 kg), Nicaragua (31.5 kg) and Honduras (38.8 kg) USA (126.8 kg), Bahamas (111.9 kg) and St Vincent & Grenadines (109.5 kg)
	South America	68.7	64.3	Venezuela (35.6 kg), Paraguay (36.4 kg) and Ecuador (50.9 kg) Argentina (115.5 kg), Brazil (98.8 kg) and Chile (97.8 kg)
	The Middle East...	53.0	45.3	Syria (17.8 kg), Yemen (17.8 kg) and Iraq (18.3 kg) Israel (107.7 kg), UAE (84.3 kg) and Qatar (83.0 kg)
	World	52.5	49.0	Congo, DR (03.0 kg), Burundi (03.5 kg) and Bangladesh (04.3 kg) Hong Kong (146.9 kg), USA (126.8 kg) and Nauru (125.9 kg)

“Reducing appetites for carbon-intensive meat and dairy is incredibly hard, particularly in countries with high-income economies. [...] This is why much attention in “foodtech” circles has been focused on efforts to produce sustainable affordable, and scalable meat substitutes. Plant-based meat companies such as Beyond and Impossible have been investor darlings as they attract burger-loving converts, largely in high-income countries. Another avenue for protein transitioning is ramping up production and consumption of marine protein, as it is eight-to-10 times less carbon-intensive than beef. Investment in marine environments, such as seaweed beds or mangrove forests, produces a decarbonization multiplier effect of sorts: scaling up natural environments acting as "carbon sinks" as well as new sources for low-carbon nutrition.”

GFI (2022)₈

4. The History of Vegetarianism

#buddhism #egypt #hinduism #india #UK

Vegetarianism has existed as a distinct form of diet for many thousands of years. Some ancient Indians and Egyptians abstained from eating meat (and lots of other things), and as such the beginnings of vegetarianism are lost in pre-history₂₁. It arose 'in Hindu and Buddhist countries, such as India, since at least the 2nd millennium BC due to cultural and religious practices such as Ahimsa (Non-violence)'₂₁. Pythagoras, the mystic, religious leader and mathematician, was the most famous proponent and within the Roman Empire, vegetarianism was known as 'the pythagorean diet'.

6th Century BCE

“The precise beginnings of the vegetarian ethic are lost in the priestly cults of Ancient Egypt, but through the Orphic movement vegetarianism became one of the influences upon Pythagoras, who gave his name to the diet. After his death a clear thread can be traced from antiquity to present times.”

"Vegetarianism: A History" by Colin Spencer (1993)₂₂

'The Pythagorean Diet' was a result of an ascetic mysticism, like the diets of many people in ancient history, which maybe also included an abstention from eating some types of beans, too.

4th Century CE: "The Gupta dynasty of India (320-550) provided a remarkably humane regime, absorbing many of the non-violence aspects of both Hinduism and Buddhism, even to the extent of being largely vegetarian"₂₃.

It was not until the 20th Century that the word 'vegetarian' became an institution amongst vegetarians:

“In 1847, attendees at the meeting of the first Vegetarian Society in Ramsgate, England, agreed that a "vegetarian" (from the Latin uegetus "lively", and suggestive of the English word "vegetable") was a person who refuses to consume flesh of any kind.”

Wikipedia entry on Vegetarianism₂₁

1960s-1970s: The Blossoming of Western Vegetarianism (UK). Those decades saw the rise of a mass awareness of the ethical problems of meat consumption₂₄, and this realisation was so strong that Colin Wilson can say outright that "members of the counter-culture were either vegetarian or macrobiotic"₂₄. He doesn't say "most of" - he says all of them were. Whilst this seems an inherently debatable statement, the point is that some thought it was conceivably true. This push gradually infiltrated mainstream culture: In 1968 there were a mere 16 vegetarian restaurants across the whole of London, and only 18 more across the rest of the UK. 20 years later, in 1988, there were over 750 listed in one reference₂₄; that mustn't have included low-key places and communal kitchens that were popular in the counter-culture so the total number must have been higher. One survey in 2018, possibly biased towards a more well-off demographic, found that almost one third of the UK were non-meat-eaters, including two million vegans₂₅.

5. Dietary Issues and Vegetarianism

5.1. Vitamin A is Not Found in Plants

Vitamin A (retinol) is found in animal liver (in abundance), cheese, eggs, oily fish (such as mackerel), milk, fortified margarine and yoghurt₂₆. It only comes from animal sources. There is a chemical similar to vitamin A, called beta-carotene - "a substance that the body can convert into vitamin A"₂₇, says Dr Byrnes, who also notes that this conversion only takes place efficiently when animal fats are present. Otherwise the amount converted into vitamin A is very small. We can't convert all our beta-carotene into vitamin A though, because beta-carotene is itself an important part of our diet. Some people cannot do it at all. "Infants and people with hypothyroidism, gall bladder problems or diabetes (altogether, a significant portion of the population) either cannot make the conversion, or do so very poorly".

5.2. Vitamin B₁₂ is Not Found in Plants

Vitamin B₁₂ is required in our bodies for the manufacture of red blood cells, maintaining the nervous system and DNA production during cell division (i.e., growth). Symptoms of malnutrition include tiredness, breathlessness, nerve damage and irreversible neurological damage, a poor immune response and anaemia. Our body uses B₁₂ rather efficiently, so, lack of it in the diet can take up to 20 years to become apparent in symptoms.

There is no plant source of vitamin B₁₂ - it all comes from animal food sources_28,29,30. The Vegetarian Society report that "the only reliable unfortified sources of vitamin B12 are meat, dairy products and eggs. There has been considerable research into possible plant food sources of B12. Fermented soya products, seaweeds and algae have all been proposed as possible sources of B12. However, analysis of fermented soya products, including tempeh, miso, shoyu and tamari, found no significant B12"₂₈.

“There have been reports of vegans developing vitamin B₁₂ deficiency because they have eaten plant foods (including algae such as spirulina and seaweed, and fermented soya products such as tofu) believing them to contain vitamin B₁₂.”

"Panic Nation: Unpicking the Myths We're Told About Food and Health"
Feldman & Marks (2005)_31,30

The Vegetarian Society explains: "Spirulina, an algae available as a dietary supplement in tablet form, and nori, a seaweed, have both appeared to contain significant amounts of B12 after analysis. However, it is thought that this is due to the presence of compounds structurally similar to B12, known as B12 analogues. These cannot be utilised to satisfy dietary needs [... and] may in fact increase the risk of B12 deficiency disease, as the B12 analogues can compete with B12 and inhibit metabolism"₂₈.

Some vegan groups in developing countries have been noticed for their lack of B₁₂-deficiency symptoms but in a few famous cases, they were found to actually have B₁₂ in their diet via animal and human manure that they were using as fertilizer. In more hygienic conditions, this source of B₁₂ disappears. But aside from that, vegans must augment their plant diets with vitamin B₁₂ in order to avoid malnutrition.

5.3. Vitamin D Deficiency in Vegetarians₃₂

Rickets is a childhood deficiency of vitamin D, which is called osteomalacia in adults. It causes bone weakness (causing fractures), bone pains and can cause muscle weakness and joint inflammation.

It is widely thought that sunlight on our skin provides us with a mechanism to produce vitamin D but this is largely untrue; you have to be outdoors every day at the right time, in order to achieve this, and in northern climates the required wavelengths of light are simply absent for four months at winter. Most vitamin D is, and always will be, sourced from our diets. In particular, vitamin D comes from animal fat and fish. Some plants contain a form of vitamin D denoted D2 (ergocalciferol) but this is not utilized very well in animals.

“Rickets and/or low vitamin D levels has been well-documented in many vegetarians and vegans, since animal fats are either lacking or deficient in vegetarian diets (as well as those of the general Western public who routinely try to cut their animal fat intake), since sunlight is only a source of vitamin D at certain times and at certain latitudes, and since current dietary recommendations for vitamin D are too low, this emphasizes the need to have reliable and abundant sources of this nutrient in our daily diets. Good sources include cod liver oil, lard from pigs that were exposed to sunlight, shrimp, wild salmon, sardines, butter, full-fat dairy products, and eggs from properly fed chickens.”

Dr Stephen Byrnes (2000)₃₄

5.4. Iron Deficiency

“Iron deficiency, which causes tiredness, is the world's most common nutritional problem. In the UK around 20% of women are anaemic. Iron is the least plentiful nutrient in the typical British diet. It can come from plant sources (inorganic iron) or from animal tissues (haem iron). Haem iron is absorbed around five times more efficiently than inorganic iron - this is why eating red meat is recommended for preventing anaemia. Lead researcher Dr Andrew McKie said: "Currently pregnant women suffering from anaemia are given supplements of inorganic iron, but these are poorly absorbed and poorly tolerated.”

BBC News (2005)₃₅

It is dangerous for women to remain on a vegetarian diet during pregnancy. Not only is substitute iron less efficient, but some people cannot tolerate it at all. If a woman's baby is intolerant to inorganic iron, a vegetarian diet can be fatal for the baby and harm the mother more than normal as her iron requirements are much higher and only iron obtained typically from red meats is adequate and efficient for her.

6. Alternatives to Vegetarianism

6.1. Consumer Activism and Economics: Ethical Purchasing₃₂

#activism

Many people are abhorred by some of the modern and inhumane methods by which animals are farmed and the conditions that they're subject to. It is honourable to wish to reduce the suffering of animals. It is good to insist that animals are farmed in ethical and compassionate ways. It is better to support humane animal farming by buying meat produced by humane methods, rather than avoiding meat altogether. The massive meat industry is not affected by non-consumption protests. But if market forces dictate that ethical production methods sell better, the meat industry does listen. If you are morally concerned about the welfare of animals, as you should be, it is better to buy meat farmed ethically than it is to shun meat altogether, because that makes the entire market swing towards ethical methods and has a bigger impact than resorting to (self-harming) vegetarian protest.

The Economist magazine's special report (2006) explained that buying meat from those conforming to ethical standards is more effective at changing the industry than simply abstaining from meat altogether - "consumption, rather than non-consumption" is "far more likely to produce results" according to Ian Bretman of Fairtrade Labelling Organisation (FLO) International, the Fairtrade umbrella group₃₆.

6.2. Synthetically Grown (In-Vitro) Meat

#environmentalism #food #meat #synthetic_meat #veganism #vegetarianism

Synthetic meat, also known as in-vitro meat, is grown in laboratories and vats rather than being the flesh of slaughtered animals₃₇. It has been frequently predicted to be "nearly ready", but research continues and it is clearly at least another ten years away₃₈. When ready, it has "astounding potential to save animals"₃₉.

Without the diseases, contaminations and antibiotics of animal agriculture, it has potential to be healthier₃₇ and more predictable quality than slaughtered meat, avoiding those periodic disease outbreaks that lead to mass culling and supply chain disruptions₃₉. The benefits to animal welfare are epic: no livestock needs to be kept in captivity, it requires no slaughter and no animal transportation, and could stop the hunting of endangered animals for their meat_37,6. It is much better for the environment, using 98% less land than animal agriculture and 82-92% less water, up to 60% less energy for equivalents to pork, sheep and beef and producing 80-90% lower greenhouse gas emissions_6,39.

But potential isn't matching reality. Synthetic meats are still having to use particularly cruel animal extractions in order to provide growth media; the market is likely to remain experimental and niche for a long time and may never be accepted by vegans₃₉ nor by committed carnivores. It is being comprehensively overtaken by high-quality protein-rich plant-based foods with denser textures. Encouraging plant-based foods seems a winner, whereas synthetic meat is turning out to be too slow to develop, and once done, will remain too expensive to become influential enough to help with reducing unsustainable animal agriculture and animal suffering.

For more, see:

• "Synthetically Grown (In-Vitro) Meat" by Vexen Crabtree (2023).

7. Religion and Vegetarianism

#animal_welfare #hinduism #india #islam #judaism #religion #sikh_diet #sikhism #vegetarianism

A few religions are completely and doctrinally vegetarian, such as the Jains₄₀. Most signficantly, Hinduism requires abstinance from eating beef and many avoid meat overall, as a result, India is 83% vegetarian₄₁. Although Sikhs can eat meat, most are vegetarian₄₂. Any meat eaten must not have been "slaughtered according to the rules of Islam or Judaism" due to the cruelty of the methods used₄₂.

For more, see:

• "Religion and Vegetarianism" by Vexen Crabtree (2023).

7.1. Ritual Animal Slaughter in World Religions

#animal_sacrifice #animal_welfare #christianity #islam #judaism #sikhism

World religions such as Christianity, Islam and Judaism embody traditional and bizarre animal sacrifice rituals in their holy texts, resulting in enduring practices that are awful for animal welfare, but, generally protected under religious-freedom laws, even in modern countries. Although it might seem reasonable in the West to allow butchers to sell halal food, at the core of this familiar label is weird ritualistic behaviour that belongs in the dark ages. The ideals of pluralism have blinded us to the stark reality that some religious practices are simply unacceptable. Animal rights campaigners have joined forces with moral activists to try and curb religious ritual slaughter of animals. The general public associate blood rituals involving animals with Satanism, not realizing that they were all invented, and are still practiced, by mainstream religions - and that Satanism does not involve animal sacrifice. Sikhs will specifically not eat meat slaughtered in accordance with Jewish or Muslim practices due to the unnecessarily cruel methods used₄₂.

For more, see:

• "Animal Sacrifice and Blood Rituals in Traditional World Religions and Satanism" by Vexen Crabtree (2008).