Human Rights and Freedom in the Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

https://www.humantruth.info/ivory_coast_human_rights_and_freedom.html

By Vexen Crabtree 2018

#antisemitism #Ivory_Coast #ivory_coast_antisemitism

Ivory Coast Republic of Cote d'Ivoire [Country Profile Page]
Status	Independent State
Social and Moral Index	160th best
Location	Africa
Population	25.1m₁
Life Expectancy	58.60yrs (2017)₂

The Ivory Coast is generally poor at ensuring human rights and freedom compared to the rest of the world. The Ivory Coast does better than average when it comes to its success in fighting anti-semitic prejudice₃, commentary in Human Rights Watch reports₄ (one of the highest in Africa), supporting press freedom₅ and in freethought₆. Human Rights Watch in 2017 reported some improvement in the legal defence of human rights, including in press freedom₇ and judicial abuses and arbitrary arrests were decreasing in number₇. The Ivory Coast does not succeed in everything, however. The Ivory Coast does worse than average when it comes to combatting modern slavery₈, its average Freedom in the World rating (still good for Africa), supporting personal, civil & economic freedoms₉, LGBT equality₁₀ (still good for Africa) and in its nominal commitment to Human Rights₁₁. And finally, it sits amongst the bottom 20 in terms of opposing gender inequality₁₂. Prosecutions against historical human rights abusers is still rare and perpetrators of post-election abuse and violence in 2010-11 largely remained unaccountable₇.

1. Ivory Coast's Human Rights, Equality & Tolerance

#equality #freedom #gender_equality #human_rights #ivory_coast #morals #politics #prejudice #tolerance

Compared to Africa (2025)₁₃
Pos.		Lower is better Avg Rank₁₃
1	Mauritius	60.0
2	S. Africa	60.4
3	Cape Verde	64.6
	...
23	Gabon	109.0
24	Gambia	109.9
25	Niger	110.5
26	Ivory Coast	111.5
27	Liberia	113.0
28	Malawi	115.2
29	Togo	115.9
30	Algeria	116.2
31	Nigeria	117.6
	Africa Avg	110.04
q=54.

Human Rights, Equality & Tolerance (2025)₁₃
Pos.		Lower is better Avg Rank₁₃
1	Sweden	5.9
2	Norway	8.0
3	Denmark	8.1
	...
142	Niger	110.5
143	Kazakhstan	110.7
144	Tajikistan	110.9
145	Ivory Coast	111.5
146	Maldives	111.8
147	Liberia	113.0
148	Jordan	113.6
149	Vietnam	114.1
	World Avg	86.35
q=198.

The best countries in the world at ensuring human rights, fostering equality and promoting tolerance, are Sweden, Norway and Denmark₁₄. These countries are displaying the best traits that humanity has to offer. The worst countries are N. Korea, Somalia and Eritrea₁₄.

25 datasets are used to calculate points for each country, including multiple decades of data on supporting press freedom, combatting modern slavery, supporting personal, civil & economic freedoms, its average Freedom in the World rating, commentary in Human Rights Watch reports, its nominal commitment to Human Rights, speed of uptake of HR treaties, opposing gender inequality, the rate of gender bias (from 7 indicators), the year from which women could participate in democracy, its success in fighting anti-semitic prejudice, LGBT equality and freethought. The regions with the best average results per country are Scandinavia, Baltic States and Europe₁₄, whereas the worst are The Middle East, Africa and Asia₁₄.

For more, see:

" Which are the Best Countries for Human Rights, Equality and Tolerance?" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

Amnesty International's 2023-23 summary on human rights in Côte d'Ivoire stated:

“Modifications to two laws adopted by the senate threatened to curtail the right to freedom of expression. Political parties and civil society organizations released a report recommending a process to provide reparation for victims of electoral violence. Survivors of sexual and gender-based violence continued to face obstacles in their search for justice. There were several incidents of badly constructed buildings collapsing, causing deaths. The government took measures to ensure the rights to health and food.”
"The State of the World's Human Rights 2022/23" by Amnesty International (2023)₁₅

Human Rights Watch in 2017 reported some improvement in the legal defence of human rights in Côte d'Ivoire, that the press is mostly free₇, judicial abuses such as arbitrary arrests have been decreasing in number₇ and the "International Criminal Court (ICC) continued the trial of former President Gbagboand Charles Blé Goudé, a former youth minister and leader of a pro-Gbagbo militia"₇. Despite these positive comments, prosecutions against historical human rights abusers is still rare and perpetrators of post-election abuse and violence in 2010-11 largely remained unaccountable₇.

“The prevalence of arbitrary arrests, mistreatment of detainees, and unlawful killings by the security forces lessened again in 2017, but investigations and prosecutions of those who commit abuses were rare. Although Côte d'Ivoire's press largely operated without restrictions, laws criminalizing publication of false information were on occasion used to unfairly detain journalists and several pro-opposition newspapers were temporarily suspended. [...]

Many members of the security forces, including senior army officers, continued to engage in racketeering and extortion. Several army commanders allegedly responsible for atrocities during the 2002-03 armed conflict and 2010-11 crisis were promoted in January.”
"World Report 2018" by Human Rights Watch (2018)₁₆

2. Human Rights & Tolerance Datasets

2.1. Press Freedom

#democracy #freedom #Freedom_of_Speech #Good_Governance #mass_media #politics #UK

Press Freedom Higher is better₅
Pos.		2025₅
1	Norway	92.31
2	Estonia	89.46
3	Netherlands	88.64
	...
60	S. Korea	64.06
61	Ukraine	63.93
62	Brazil	63.80
63	Ivory Coast	63.69
64	Andorra	63.30
65	Japan	63.14
66	Malta	62.96
67	Hungary	62.82
	Africa Avg	52.30
	World Avg	54.65
q=179.

With respect to supporting press freedom, the Ivory Coast is positioned 63rd in the world.

The freedom to investigate, publish information, and have access to others' opinion is a fundamental part of today's information-driven world, and is linked with Freedom of Speech and Good Governance. Scores on the Press Freedom Index are calculated according to indicators including pluralism - the degree to which opinions are represented in the media, media independence of authorities, self-censorship, legislation, transparency and the infrastructure that supports news and information, and, the level of violence against journalists which includes lengths of imprisonments. The index "does not take direct account of the kind of political system but it is clear that democracies provide better protection for the freedom to produce and circulate accurate news and information than countries where human rights are flouted". The rankings are used as one of the datasets of the Social and Moral Development Index₁₇

It must be noted that press freedom is not an indicator of press quality and the press itself can be abusive; the UK suffers in particular from a popular brand of nasty reporting that infuses several of its newspapers who are particularly prone to running destructive and often untrue campaigns against victims. The Press Freedom Index notes that "the index should in no way be taken as an indicator of the quality of the media in the countries concerned".

For more, see:

"Human Rights" by Vexen Crabtree (2019).

Averages by decade for the Ivory Coast (for the ranks, lower is better):

Press Freedom	2000s Average	2010s Average
the Ivory Coast:	35.16	69.71
World Rank:	126th	⇡ 86th
World Avg:	27.44	65.91

2.2. Slavery in the 2020s

#burundi #eritrea #human_rights #indonesia #slavery

Slavery in the 2020s Lower is better₈
Pos.		Total Per 1000₈
1=	Switzerland	0.50
1=	Norway	0.50
3=	Germany	0.60
	...
108=	Bangladesh	7.10
109	Bolivia	7.20
110=	Nicaragua	7.30
110=	Ivory Coast	7.30
110=	Jamaica	7.30
113	Uzbekistan	7.40
114=	Romania	7.50
114=	Burundi	7.50
	Africa Avg	6.90
	World Avg	7.15
q=160.

The Ivory Coast is positioned 110th in the world in terms of combatting modern slavery.

Modern slavery includes forced labour (often of the under-age), debt bondage (especially generational), sexual slavery, chattel slavery and other forms of abuse, some of which can be surprisingly difficult to detect, but often target those fleeing from warzones, and poverty-stricken vulnerable.₁₈. Some industries (diamond, clothing, coal) from some countries (Burundi₁₉, Eritrea₁₉, Indonesia₂₀) are a particular concern. The Walk Free Foundation, say in their 2023 report that 50 million people are living in modern slavery₁₉.

For more, see:

"The Historical Slave Trade and Modern Slavery" by Vexen Crabtree (2018).

Averages by decade for the Ivory Coast (for the ranks, lower is better):

Slavery	2010s Average	2020s Average
the Ivory Coast:	5.90	7.30
World Rank:	111th	⇡ 110th
World Avg:	6.54	7.15

2.3. Personal, Civil & Economic Freedom

#freedom #politics

Personal, Civil & Economic Freedom Lower is better₉
Pos.		2014 Rank₉
1	Hong Kong	1
2	Switzerland	2
3	New Zealand	3
	...
107	Thailand	107
108	Lebanon	108
109	Laos	109
110	Ivory Coast	110
111=	Ukraine	111
111=	Senegal	111
111=	Colombia	111
111=	Kuwait	111
	Africa Avg	114.2
	World Avg	79.7
q=159.

The Ivory Coast comes 110th in the world in terms of supporting personal, civil & economic freedoms.

The Human Freedom Index published by the Fraser Institute is...

“... a broad measure of human freedom, understood as the absence of coercive constraint. It uses 79 distinct indicators of personal and economic freedom in the following areas: Rule of Law, Security and Safety, Movement, Religion, Association, Assembly, and Civil Society, Expression, Relationships, Size of Government, Legal System and Property Rights, Access to Sound Money, Freedom to Trade Internationally, Regulation of Credit, Labor, and Business. [...]
The highest levels of freedom are in Western Europe, Northern Europe, and North America (Canada and the United States. The lowest levels are in the Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. [...]
Countries in the top quartile of freedom enjoy a significant higher per capita income ($37,147) [compared with] the least-free quartile [at] $8,700). The HFI finds a strong correlation between human freedom and democracy.”
"The Human Freedom Index" by The Fraser Institute (2016)₂₁

For more, see:

"Human Rights" by Vexen Crabtree (2019).

2.4. Freedom in the World

#freedom #human_rights #hungary #politics #USA

Freedom in the World Lower is better
Pos.		2024 Score
1=	Norway	1.0
1=	Canada	1.0
1=	Cape Verde	1.0
	...
112=	Guatemala	4.0
112=	Zambia	4.0
112=	Kenya	4.0
112=	Ivory Coast	4.0
112=	Honduras	4.0
112=	Bosnia & Herzegovina	4.0
112=	Armenia	4.0
112=	Singapore	4.0
	Africa Avg	4.8
	World Avg	3.7
q=205.

Still low for Africa The Ivory Coast comes 110th in the world in terms of its average Freedom in the World rating.

Freedom House's long-standing annual report has been running since the 1970s, collecting data on political rights (PR) and civil liberties (CL). Their reports rate countries as "Free", "Partially Free" or "Not Free", however the results here are based on their numerical values. Many countries score the best combination of scores (1 and 1), which is why the table of results show many places equally placed in 1st place. In the past two decades, some well-established democracies like the USA and Hungary have been falling. Whilst most of the world in general is improving rights and freedoms over time, the 2020s has seen some regression.

For more, see:

" Which are the Best Countries for Human Rights, Equality and Tolerance?" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

Averages by decade for the Ivory Coast (for the ranks, lower is better):

Freedom in the World	1970s Average	1980s Average	1990s Average	2000s Average	2010s Average
the Ivory Coast:	5.7	5.4	5.3	5.7	4.7
World Rank:	114th	⇡ 111th	⇣ 142nd	⇣ 176th	⇡ 140th
World Avg:	4.3	4.2	3.6	3.4	3.4

2.5. Human Rights Watch Comments

#human_rights

Human Rights Watch Comments Higher is better₄
Pos.		2017 Score₄
1=	UK	9
1=	France	9
1=	Germany	9
	...
42=	S. Korea	0
43=	Guatemala	-1
43=	Armenia	-1
43=	Ivory Coast	-1
43=	Kosovo	-1
43=	Honduras	-1
43=	Peru	-1
49=	Mozambique	-2
	Africa Avg	-5.6
	World Avg	-1.9
q=123.

Regarding commentary in Human Rights Watch reports, the Ivory Coast is positioned 43rd in the world (amongst the best in Africa).

Human Rights Watch comments concentrate mostly on negative issues, however, they also make positive comments for those countries that engage in human rights defence around the world, or who make improvements at home. By adding up positive and negative comments (including double-points for negatives that involve large scales and crimes against humanity), the Social and Moral Index turns HRW commentary into quantified values. Some countries may be unfairly penalized because HRW have not examined them, and, some countries "get away" with abuses if they manage to hide it, or if it goes unnoticed - a negative point has been given for those countries in which HRW specifically state that access to investigators has been barred. The points were limited to a minimum of -10 because there are some points at which things are so bad, with abuses affecting so many, it is difficult to be more specific about the depths of the issues.

For more, see:

"Human Rights" by Vexen Crabtree (2019).

2.6. Nominal Commitment to HR

#human_rights

Nominal Commitment to HR Higher is better₁₁
Pos.		2009 Treaties₁₁
1	Argentina	24
2=	Chile	23
2=	Costa Rica	23
	...
127=	Malawi	13
127=	Zambia	13
127=	Congo, (Brazzaville)	13
127=	Ivory Coast	13
127=	Afghanistan	13
127=	Gambia	13
127=	Equatorial Guinea	13
127=	Antigua & Barbuda	13
	Africa Avg	14.8
	World Avg	15.1
q=194.

In terms of its nominal commitment to Human Rights, the Ivory Coast comes 125th in the world.

There are many international agreements on human rights, and, many mechanisms by which countries can be brought to account for their actions. Together, these have been the biggest historical movement in the fight against oppression and inhumanity. Or, putting it another way: these are rejected mostly by those who wish to oppress inhumanely. None of them are perfect and many people object to various components and wordings, but, no-one has come up with, and enforced, better methods of controlling the occasional desires that states and peoples have of causing angst for other states and peoples in a violent, unjust or inhumane way. Points are awarded for the number of human rights agreements ratified by the country, plus the acceptance of the petition mechanisms for disputes. The maximum possible score in 2009 was 24.

For more, see:

"Human Rights" by Vexen Crabtree (2019).

2.7. HR Treaties Lag

#human_rights #international_law #micronesia #politics #small_islands

HR Treaties Lag Lower is better₂₂
Pos.		2019 Avg Yrs/Treaty₂₂
1	Ecuador	2.15
2	Uruguay	2.25
3	Tunisia	3.65
	...
136	Botswana	12.05
137	Estonia	12.06
138	Gambia	12.12
139	Ivory Coast	12.14
140	Trinidad & Tobago	12.26
141	Turkmenistan	12.35
142	Serbia	12.44
143	Indonesia	12.45
	Africa Avg	9.88
	World Avg	10.02
q=195.

The Ivory Coast comes 139th in the world in terms of speed of uptake of HR treaties.

Human Rights (HR) Treaties Lag is a count of how long it took each country to sign each of 11 key HR treaties. From the date of the first signatory of each treaty, all other countries have one point added to their score for each day they delayed in signing. Results are presented as average time in years to sign each one. The lower a country's score, the more enthusiastically it has taken on international Human Rights Treaties - which are, of course, minimal standards of good governance. The slowest are the countries of Micronesia, Melanesia, Australasia and Polynesia all lagged by over 12 years per treaty. The best regions are The Americas, Scandinavia and the Mediterranean.

For more, see:

" Which are the Best Countries for Human Rights, Equality and Tolerance?" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

3. Gender Equality Datasets

The 1950s saw a late rush of 43 countries, including The Ivory Coast and many developing nations, move to cease preventing women from voting. The Ivory Coast is an unequal country, with male rights dominating those of women. Islamic beliefs are squarely the cause of this situation.

“Although the UN reported in January 2017 that the number of reported cases of sexual and gender-based violence has progressively decreased since 2014, social stigma and widespread impunity prevents many victims from reporting abuses. The holding of cour d'assises sessions has enabled some trials and convictions for rape, but many sexual assaults are reclassified as lesser offenses or settled out of court.”
"World Report 2018" by Human Rights Watch (2018)₁₆

See:

3.1. Gender Inequality

#gender #gender_equality #human_rights #misogyny #women

Gender Inequality Lower is better₁₂
Pos.		2022₁₂
1	Denmark	0.01
2	Norway	0.01
3	Switzerland	0.02
	...
151	Mali	0.61
152	Burkina Faso	0.61
153	Sierra Leone	0.61
154	Ivory Coast	0.62
155	Niger	0.62
156	Haiti	0.62
157	Guinea	0.63
158	Guinea-Bissau	0.63
	Africa Avg	0.53
	World Avg	0.34
q=166.

The Ivory Coast comes 13th-worst in the world regarding opposing gender inequality.

The UN Human Development Reports include statistics on gender equality which take into account things like maternal mortality, access to political power (seats in parliament) and differences between male and female education rates. Gender inequality is not a necessary part of early human development. Although a separation of roles is almost universal due to different strengths between the genders, this does not have to mean that women are subdued, and, such patriarchalism is not universal in ancient history. Those cultures and peoples who shed, or never developed, the idea that mankind ought to dominate womankind, are better cultures and peoples than those who, even today, cling violently to those mores.

For more, see:

"Gender Equality" by Vexen Crabtree (2023).

On average throughout the 2010s, the Ivory Coast's rate was 0.63.

3.2. Year Women Can Vote

#christianity #gender_equality #human_rights #politics #women

Year Women Can Vote Lower is better
Pos.		Total Year
1	New Zealand	1893
2	Australia	1902
3	Finland	1906
	...
89=	St Kitts & Nevis	1951
89=	St Vincent & Grenadines	1951
91=	Bolivia	1952
91=	Ivory Coast	1952
91=	Greece	1952
91=	Lebanon	1952
95=	Guyana	1953
95=	Mexico	1953
	Africa Avg	1961
	World Avg	1930
q=189.

The Ivory Coast is 91st in the world regarding the year from which women could participate in democracy.

Women now have equal rights in the vast majority of countries across the world. Although academic literature oftens talks of when a country "grants women the right to vote", this enforces a backwards way of thinking. Women always had the right to vote, however, they were frequently denied that right. The opposition to women's ability to vote in equality with man was most consistently and powerfully opposed by the Catholic Church, other Christian organisations, Islamic authorities and some other religious and secular traditionalists.

For more, see:

"Gender Equality" by Vexen Crabtree (2023).

4. Prejudice Datasets

4.1. Anti-Semite Opinions

#antisemitism #christianity #germany #indonesia #jordan #judaism #laos #morocco #netherlands #pakistan #philippines #religion #religious_violence #saudi_arabia #spain #sweden #turkey #UK #vietnam

Anti-Semite Opinions Lower is better₃
Pos.		2014 %₃
1	Laos	0
2	Philippines	3
3	Sweden	4
	...
26=	Italy	20
26=	China	20
28	Portugal	21
29=	Ivory Coast	22
29=	Estonia	22
31	Japan	23
32=	Trinidad & Tobago	24
32=	Argentina	24
	Africa Avg	45.9
	World Avg	36.8
q=101.

The Ivory Coast comes 30th in the world with regard to its success in fighting anti-semitic prejudice.

Anti-Semitism is the word given to irrational racism against Jews. It's not the same as anti-Judaism (arguments against the religion) nor the same as anti-Zionism (arguments against Israel). In history, influential Christian theologians concocted the arguments against Jews that led, very early on, to widespread Christian action against Jews₂₃_,₂₄_,₂₅_,₂₆. As Christianity rose to power in the West and presided over the Dark Ages, there were repeated violent outbursts against Jews of the most horrible kind. Entire Crusades were aimed at them and the feared Spanish Inquisition paid Jews particular attention. The horror of the holocaust instigated by German Nazis in the 1940s was followed (finally) by the era of European human rights and a movement against racism in general.

The places that are the least anti-Semitical are a few countries of south-east Asia (Laos, the Philippines and Vietnam) and some of the secular liberal democracies of Europe (Sweden, the Netherlands and the UK). The worst countries for antisemitism are Islamic states of the Middle East₂₇, which are undergoing their own Dark Age. Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Morocco, Indonesia, Pakistan and Turkey see the most oppressive and violent actions towards Jews₂₈_,₂₉. Jews in Muslim countries face a host of restrictions and "ceaseless humiliation and regular pogroms"₃₀. In 2004 the European Union Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia reported on violent anti-Jew crimes in the EU and found that that largest group of perpetrators were young Muslim males₃₁.

For more, see:

"Anti-Semitism" by Vexen Crabtree (2017).

4.2. LGBT Equality

#equality #homosexuality #human_rights #ICCPR #intolerance #sexuality #tolerance

“"Côte d'Ivoire does not criminalize same-sex conduct, although the criminal code establishes higher minimum sentences for public indecency for same-sex couples. An antidiscrimination provision in Côte d'Ivoire's new constitution, promulgated in January 2017, does not include protection against discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation. Incidents of discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons, including physical assaults, are common.”
"World Report 2018" by Human Rights Watch (2018)₁₆

LGBT Equality Higher is better₁₀
Pos.		2017 Score₁₀
1	Netherlands	103
2	Belgium	90
3	Sweden	86
	...
116=	Madagascar	5
116=	Chad	5
118=	Indonesia	1
118=	Ivory Coast	1
118=	Russia	1
118=	Benin	1
118=	Niger	1
123	Bahrain	-2
	Africa Avg	-10.4
	World Avg	12.6
q=196.

The Ivory Coast ranks 118th in the world with regard to LGBT equality (still high for Africa).

Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) folk is rife across the world. Legal restrictions co-exist alongside social stigmatisation and physical violence₃₂. LGBT tolerance and equal rights have been fought for country-by-country across the world, often against tightly entrenched cultural and religious opposition. Adult consensual sexual activity is a Human Right, protected by privacy laws₃₃. Despite this, homosexual activity is outlawed in around 80 countries₃₂. The Social & Moral LGBT Equality Index was created to compare countries and regions, granting points to each country for a variety of factors including how long gay sex has been criminalized and the extent of LGBT legal rights. Graded negative points are given for criminality of homosexuality, unequal ages of consent, legal punishments and for not signing international accords on LGBT tolerance. The signs in many developed countries are positive, and things are gradually improving. Europe is by far the least prejudiced region (Scandinavia in particular being exemplary). The Middle East and then Africa are the least morally developed, where cultural bias goes hand-in-hand with state intolerance, all too often including physical violence.

For more, see:

"LGBT Rights Across the World: Which are the Best and Worst Countries?" by Vexen Crabtree (2017).

4.3. Freedom of Thought

#europe #freedom_of_belief #freethought #human_rights #netherlands #religion #religious_tolerance #secularism #the_enlightenment

Freedom of Thought Lower is better₆
Pos.		2021₆
1=	Belgium	1.0
1=	Taiwan	1.0
1=	Netherlands	1.0
	...
96=	El Salvador	3.0
96=	Serbia	3.0
96=	Cyprus	3.0
96=	Ivory Coast	3.0
96=	Spain	3.0
96=	Grenada	3.0
96=	Guatemala	3.0
96=	Laos	3.0
	Africa Avg	3.1
	World Avg	3.0
q=196.

The Ivory Coast is 88th in the world in terms of freethought.

Freedom of Religion and Freedom of Belief are upheld in Article 18 the United Nation's Universal Declaration of Human Rights₃₄. It affirms that it is a basic human right that all people are free to change their beliefs and religion as they wish₃₅. No countries voted against this (although eight abstained). This right was first recognized clearly in the policies of religious toleration of the Netherlands and elsewhere in Europe in the post-enlightenment era₃₆ of the 19th century. In democratic countries, freedom of belief and religion is now taken for granted₃₇. In 2016 a study found that over 180 countries in the world had come to guarantee freedom of religion and belief₃₈. The best countries at doing so are Belgium, The Netherlands and Taiwan₆_,₃₉ and the worst: Afghanistan, N. Korea, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia₆_,₄₀.

Long-term studies have shown that religious violence and persecution both decrease in cultures where religious freedom is guaranteed₄₁. Despite this, there still are many who are strongly against freedom of belief₃₅, including entire cultures and many individual communities of religious believers. Their alternative is that you are not free to believe what you want and they often state that you cannot change religion without being punished (often including the death penalty): this is bemoaned as one of the most dangerous elements of religion₄₂ and "the denial of religious freedoms is inevitably intertwined with the denial of other freedoms"₄₃ and the solution is, everywhere, to allow religious freedom and the freedom of belief.

For more, see:

"Freethought - Freedom of Belief and Freedom of Religion" by Vexen Crabtree (2022).